Education at the Margins: Systemic Challenges and Transformative Possibilities in Delhi’s Slum Communities

A Policy Brief on Inclusive Education for Urban Disadvantaged Settlements Author: Ravindra Kumar Mishra, Senior Fellow, BNSK-Bharat

Urban slums in Delhi, characterized by overcrowding, inadequate housing, limited access to basic services and present unique challenges to education. While the Right to Education (RTE) Act mandates free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14 years, the reality in slum areas often falls short due to infrastructural deficits, socio-economic constraints, and systemic neglect. According to Asha India, the literacy rate in Delhi's slums stands at 56%, with dropout rates from classes I-X at 46% and enrolment in higher education at 45% .

Slums represent some of the most marginalized and underserved areas within country’s rapidly expanding and agglomeration of cities. Defined under Section 3 of the Slum Areas (Improvement and Clearance) Act, 1956, slums are characterized by overcrowding, dilapidated housing, poor sanitation, and a general lack of basic civic amenities, rendering them unfit for healthy habitation. In Delhi NCT, over 17% of the population lives in such conditions (Census 2011), a figure that may underrepresent the true magnitude due to the exclusion of unauthorized and unrecognized settlements.

Education in these areas is compromised by both systemic and socio-economic barriers. Although the Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009 mandates free and compulsory education for children aged 6–14 years, its implementation in slum communities is fraught with challenges. Children in slums often attend overcrowded, under-resourced government schools, provided they attend school at all. Many are forced to drop out early to contribute to family income, care for siblings, or due to safety concerns, especially adolescent girls.

Slum households lack access to essential services that support educational continuity, such as electricity for studying, clean water, separate toilets in schools, and stable housing. Parents often face challenges as they have low levels of literacy, limited awareness of the value of formal education, which further contributes to irregular attendance and early school leaving of children.

The COVID-19 pandemic exposed and deepened these educational inequities, particularly through the digital divide. Without smartphones, internet access, or digital literacy, many slum children were effectively excluded from remote learning, further setting them back academically causing learning deficiency and wide learning gaps. .

An effort has been made in this document to explore the structural gaps and contextual challenges in urban slum education in Delhi, and to propose targeted, sustainable interventions to ensure inclusive, equitable access to quality education for every child irrespective of their socio-economic background or settlement status. Legal and Policy Framework

Constitution of India mandates education as a fundamental right and several targeted policies and schemes aim at improving access and quality for marginalized communities, including those residing in urban slums. However, the gap between policy intent and on ground implementation remains substantial, particularly in complex urban settlements like those in Delhi.

Sustainable development Goals: NITI Aayog, the Government of India’s premier think tank, has been entrusted with the task of coordinating the SDGs, mapping schemes related to the SDGs and their targets, and identifying lead and supporting ministries for each target. In addition, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) has been leading discussions for developing national indicators for the SDGs. State governments are key to India’s progress on the SDGs as they are best placed to ‘put people first’ and to ensuring that ‘no one is left behind’.

The Goal SDG-4.1 states that “By 2030, ensure that all boys and girls complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes.Further the SDG 4.5 states that “By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of Education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations”

1. Constitutional and Legal Provisions

Article 21A of the Constitution guarantees free and compulsory education to all children aged 6 to 14 years, introduced through the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act (2002). This right is operationalized by the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (RTE), 2009, which mandates:

1. No child shall be denied admission for lack of documents.

2. Private schools must reserve 25% of seats for children from economically weaker sections (EWS) and disadvantaged groups.

3. Minimum standards for infrastructure, pupil-teacher ratio, and trained educators.

Despite this, implementation in Delhi's slums faces practical barriers such as lack of documentation (e.g., birth certificates, proof of residence), low awareness among parents, and resistance from some private institutions to the EWS mandate.

2. Key Government Schemes and Initiatives

1. Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA): Launched in 2001 to universalize elementary education. In Delhi’s slums, SSA supports school construction, teacher training, remedial teaching, free textbooks and uniforms.

2. Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (since 2018): The Union Budget, 2018-19, has proposed to treat school education holistically without segmentation from pre-nursery to Class 12. Samagra Shiksha - an overarching programme for the school education sector extending from pre-school to class 12 has been, therefore, prepared with the broader goal of improving school effectiveness measured in terms of equal opportunities for schooling and equitable learning outcomes. It subsumes the three erstwhile Schemes of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) and Teacher Education (TE).

3. PM POSHAN (POshan SHAkti Nirman) Scheme for providing one hot cooked meal in Government and Government-aided schools from 2021-22 to 2025-26, earlier known as ‘National Programme for Mid-Day Meal in Schools’ popularly known as Mid-Day Meal Scheme. This is a Centrally-Sponsored Scheme which covers all school children studying in Classes I-VIII in Government, Government-Aided Schools.

4. Delhi Government Key Initiatives:

Mission Buniyaad (Delhi Government): Mission Buniyaad was unrolled on 1 April 2022 to 15 June 2022 across government and civic schools in Delhi to help make up for learning loss caused by school shutdowns during the Covid pandemic.

5. Free Transport facility of girls in rural areas in Delhi

The objective of this on going scheme is to encourage girl students of rural areas to pursue their studies by providing them free transport facilities. Presently, DTC buses are provided in 07 villages of Districts North West A, North West B and South West B. Additional schooling Facilities in the Age Group of 11-14 years & 14-17 years: The main objective of this continuing Plan Scheme is to provide additional schooling facilities to the students of the age group 11-14 and 14-17 years by opening new schools, upgrading and bifurcating existing schools. 

1. Stipend to Girl Students 

   Objective of the scheme is to promote education among girl students belonging to rural areas and JJ Colonies and retain them till their education is completed. 

2. Lal Bahadur scholarship to meritorious students  

   The objective of the scheme is to give recognition and financial help to the meritorious students of economically weaker sections of society. 

3. Coaching Facilities to the students. 

   The objective of the scheme is to facilitate coaching and study camps for the weak students to improve their performance. Earlier, students of SC/ST/ educationally backward minority & weaker section of society were covered under this scheme. The facility of coaching is now extended to all students who has poor achievement level academically. 

4. Examination Reform for Quality improvement. The main objective of this Scheme is to strengthen Examination Branch, to conduct the CCEP examinations from class VI to XII, to prepare and distribute question bank, printing of term-wise syllabus and evaluation of common examination if conducted in vacations.  

5. Bhagidari in Govt. Schools: The  objective of the scheme is to improve quality of education in Government Schools in collaboration with Public Schools, Public at large or N.G.Os.

Key Challenges and Analytical Insights

Source: PAB Minutes of PM Poshan, GOI, https://pmposhan.education.gov.in/

The above graph and table presents enrolment figures, one of the important indicators of access and the number of students availing mid-day meals across three school stages—Balvatika (pre-primary), Primary, and Upper Primary—for the academic years 2023–24 to 2025–26 in Delhi: The data reveals declining Enrolment in Primary and Upper Primary stages:

1. Primary enrolment decreased from 966,091 in 2023–24 to 795,229 in 2025–26 (a drop of

~17.7%).

2. Upper primary enrolment also dropped from 761,278 to 750,600 in the same period.

Possible Causes: Migration, disengagement due to learning loss post-COVID, and economic

pressure forcing children—especially from slums—into work or domestic duties. Improved but Uneven Meal Coverage: While the percentage of children availing mid-day meals improved across all levels, absolute numbers fell in 2025–26, especially at the upper primary level (a drop of ~83,000 from the previous year).

Concerns: Despite better coverage ratios, the absolute decline suggests either rising absenteeism or operational issues in meal delivery.

Underutilization at Balvatika Stage – Coverage improved significantly from 49% to 60% over three years, but enrolment dipped in

2025–26.

Challenge: Balvatika (pre-primary) remains under-prioritized in many slum areas, where parents may not see value in early childhood education or lack access to integrated childcare centers.

Possible Operational and Access Barriers in Slums

1. Slum schools often face erratic meal supply chains, inadequate centralizes kitchens, and

low awareness among parents about the benefits of school meals.

2. High rates of irregular attendance, particularly among girls, may also contribute to

reduced meal uptake despite enrolment.

The PM Poshan scheme plays a dual role: enhancing nutrition and incentivizing attendance.

Gaps in coverage—especially in slums—signal the need for improved implementation, localized monitoring, and infrastructure upgrades.Targeted outreach and better engagement with urban poor communities are essential to maintain and increase both enrolment and retention. Some progress is visible in PM POSHAN access, the decline in enrolment and fluctuating coverage in key stages highlight persistent educational insecurity in Delhi. Urgent, targeted interventions are needed to reverse these trends and ensure that essential entitlements translate into actual learning opportunities.

The National Achievement Survey (NAS): It is a national level large-scale assessment

conducted to obtain information about the learning achievement of students of Classes 3, 5, 8 and 10 studying in State Govt. schools, Govt. Aided schools, Private Unaided and Central Govt. schools. NAS does not provide scores for individual student/school.

It is a national representative survey that provides a system level reflection on effectiveness of school education. NAS findings help compare the performance across the spectrum and across population which may serve as input to move in the desirable direction and areas for remedial interventions.

NAS is useful for educational planners and policy makers including researchers in understanding the interdependence of assessment, pedagogical process and learning outcomes. 

NAS 2021 focused on competency-based assessment. It was conducted in Language,

Mathematics & Environmental Studies for class 3 & 5; Language, Mathematics, Science & Social Science for class 8 and Modern Indian Language, Mathematics, Science, Social Science and English for class 10. Based on NAS Data Comparison: National vs. State (Delhi) Performance The following data compares student learning outcomes across grades (3, 5, 8, and 10) in six key subjects based on the National Achievement Survey (NAS). The figures represent the percentage of students achieving grade-level proficiency, with national and Delhi (state) averages side-by-side:

Source: https://nas.gov.in/ Analysis of the NAS data reveals that: In Grade 3 and 5 students in Delhi perform below national averages in core subjects like Language, Mathematics, and EVS.

• Example: In Grade 3, Delhi trails the national average in Language (52% vs. 62%) and Math (47% vs. 57%).

• This reflects early learning deficits, likely due to lack of pre-primary preparedness, untrained teachers, and poor home literacy environments in slum communities.

In Mathematics there is Consistently Weak Performance across all grades, Math scores are the lowest or among the lowest, with Delhi’s numbers either below or barely matching national averages. Albeit, National average merits attention too. This trend is particularly concerning as numeracy is a foundational skill linked to academic progression and real-world functioning. This may be due to lack of individualized instruction, poor conceptual grounding, teacher absenteeism, and unengaging pedagogical approaches in government schools. Relatively, there is better performance in higher grades. In Grades 8 and 10, Delhi slightly outperforms national averages in Language, Science, Social Science, and English.

• Example: In Grade 10, Delhi leads the national average in English (58% vs. 43%) and Social Science (45% vs. 37%).

This may reflect the impact of Delhi government’s recent reforms (e.g., Mission Buniyaad, Happiness Curriculum), especially in upper primary and secondary government schools.

There is Equity Gap Between Subjects and Grades. The sharp drop from primary to middle school, especially in Math and Science, points to widening inequity in learning outcomes as students progress. This may be harmful particularly for slum children, many of whom already face marginalization, leading to poor retention and transition to higher education.

There is emerging strength in English but uneven: Delhi outperforms the national average in English (Grade 10: 58% vs. 43%), likely due to a push for English-medium instruction and better urban exposure. However, this is often skewed toward more stable, recognized settlements; children in unauthorized slums still lack foundational English skills due to poor early literacy access. Key Challenges Identified w.r.t slum children

1. Foundational Learning Gaps (Grades 1–5): Slum children often enter school without pre-literacy or numeracy skills; Overcrowded classrooms and insufficient support mean these gaps persist. 2. Weak Math Pedagogy: Lack of trained math teachers and student fear of the subject leads to poor engagement and performance; Few remedial or peer learning interventions exist in slum schools. 3. Language Barrier and Home Environment: Many children in slums speak dialects or regional languages at home, while instruction is in Hindi or English; Parents often lack literacy to support homework or reading habits. 4. Teacher Shortages and Ineffective Teaching Practices: Government schools in slum clusters often report high pupil-teacher ratios and untrained contract teachers. 5. Assessment and Feedback Gaps: NAS is diagnostic, but there is minimal localized follow-up in slum schools to address gaps through remedial action. 6. Digital Divide Post-Pandemic: COVID-era learning loss remains unresolved due to lack of digital infrastructure in slums - impacting current performance levels. According to UDISE 2021 there are 151600 teachers in 5619 schools and PTR in schools of Delhi is 30:1 which complies RTE Norms. Policy Recommendations and Best Practices

In order to address the persistent educational inequalities in Delhi, especially in slum communities, a multi-facet approach, local self-governance and community-responsive strategy is essential.

Recommendations:

1. Strengthening Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN)

• Learning recovery programms such as Delhi's Mission Buniyaad across all government and MCD schools in slum-dominated wards should be Institutionalized.

• Mobile learning units and community learning centers in unrecognized slums to reach out-of-school and dropout children should be deployed.

• Multilingual teaching aids to bridge home-school language gaps, especially in migrant communities should be integrated,

2. Expansion of digital Inclusion and EdTech Access

• Government funded digital devices (tablets/smartphones) should be distribute to students in slums, prioritizing girls and those in upper grades with uninterrupted internet access by installing community wi-fi hotspots..

• Partnership with CSR and NGOs may be of help.

• Low-bandwidth educational apps and offline digital content tailored for urban poor children should be developed.

3. Strengthening Community and Parental Engagement

• Parental awareness campaigns on the value of education, mid-day meals, and school retention, using local influencers and community leaders should be a regular feature of the schools.

• Regular SMC meeting should be organised as the convenience of the members. Launch

4. Ensuring Policy Inclusion for Migrant and Unrecognized Settlements

• Admission and KYC procedures under the RTE Act to allow enrolment without rigid documentation (proof of residence, Aadhar) should be simplified.

• Transport facility and/or transport vouchers or safe commute options for children living in slums far from the nearest school should be ensured.

• The PAB minutes and recommendations should underline slum-specific educational needs in the Annual Work Plans (AWPs) of Samagra Shiksha.

• Delhi’s experiment with Mohalla Classes during the pandemic offered informal, street-based classes with trained volunteers which may be an adaptive model for transient and underserved slum communities.

Best Practice:

• The Delhi Government’s Happiness Curriculum integrates mindfulness and well-being into daily instruction, fostering emotional resilience and focus among children from high-stress slum environments.

Conclusion

Bridging the education divide in Delhi’s urban slums requires more than policy intent-it demands localized execution, community involvement, and inter-departmental convergence between education, health, urban development, and women & child welfare departments. Drawing from best practices and tailoring them to the socio-economic realities of slum communities will ensure not just access, but equity and quality in education for all. References: 1. Asha India. (n.d.). Delhi slums. Asha for Education. Retrieved June 1, 2025, from https://asha-india.org/how-we-help/the-slums-of-delhi/

2. Baruah, S. (2022, May 27). NAS Survey 2021: Delhi among 5 lowest performing states for Class 3; improves at Class 8 level. The Indian Express. https://indianexpress.com/article/education/nas-survey-2021-delhi-in-5-lowest-performing-states-at-class-3-level-7937850/

3. Barman, S. R. (2022, May 26). Across class, subject, Covid hits school scores. The Indian Express. https://indianexpress.com/article/education/across-class-subject-covid-hits-school-scores-7936439/

4. Government of India, Press Information Bureau. (2024, December 6). Government has approved the Centrally Sponsored Scheme ‘Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman (PM-POSHAN)’ for providing hot cooked meal from 2021–22 to 2025–26 [Press release]. https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2082323

5. Handa, A. (2025, April 11). Underfunded, understaffed, underwhelming: Why Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan is failing. The Quint. https://www.thequint.com/news/education/samagra-shiksha-abhiyan-data-govt-schools-new-education-policy-nep-2020-vacancy-teachers-latest

6. Iftikhar, F. (2025, May 13). Slide in govt school enrolments continued in 2024–25; UP alone witnessed drop of 21.82 lakh. ThePrint. https://theprint.in/india/education/slide-in-govt-school-enrolments-continued-in-2024-25-up-alone-witnessed-drop-of-21-82-lakh/2624027/

7. National Council of Educational Research and Training. (2021). National Achievement Survey 2021 – State Report (Delhi). https://ncert.nic.in

8. Times of India. (2021, May 15). What is Right to Education Act (RTE Act)? Times of India (Readers’ Blog). https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/readersblog/igoravsharma/what-is-right-to-education-act-rte-act-32034/

9. UDISE+. (2022). UDISE+ 2021–22: Flash statistics. Government of India, Ministry of Education. https://education.gov.in

10. Ministry of Education, Government of India. (2025). PM POSHAN dashboard. https://pmposhan.education.gov.in/

11. Ministry of Education, Government of India. (2025). Official website. https://www.education.gov.in/

12. National Achievement Survey (NAS). (2025). Dashboard and national data portal. https://nas.gov.in/

13. United Nations in India. (2025). Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in India. https://india.un.org/en/sdgs

14. Ministry of Education, Government of India. (2020). National Education Policy 2020. https://www.education.gov.in/

Bridging Urban Inequality: An Integrated Framework for Education, Skill Development, and Health Access in India’s Slum Communities

Author: Priyal Kanungo, Research Intern, BNSK 1. Introduction: The Duality of Urban Slums

Urban slums represent a paradox within the process of urbanization - sites of economic aspiration yet entrenched in structural adversity. As engines of informal labor and micro entrepreneurship, slums contribute significantly to urban economies. However, they remain excluded from formal urban planning frameworks and often lack access to basic entitlements and services. According to the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA, 2020), approximately 17% of India's urban population resides in slums, a figure that is projected to increase with the country’s expanding urban footprint.

India’s urbanization rate stood at 35% in 2020 and is projected to reach 40% by 2030 (World Bank, 2023). This demographic shift is accompanied by a parallel growth in informal settlements, leading to escalating socio-economic vulnerabilities among slum populations. The absence of integrated policy frameworks to address slum-specific challenges has deepened disparities in education, employment, and healthcare - particularly among marginalized sub-groups such as women and adolescents.

This paper identifies and examines three interrelated dimensions that critically shape the developmental trajectory of urban slum populations:

1. Vocational Training and Livelihood Access: Slum residents are disproportionately excluded from formal employment due to limited access to market-relevant skills and certification.

2. Gender Gaps in Education: Adolescent girls in slums face intersecting structural and cultural barriers, including early marriage, inadequate school infrastructure, and gendered social norms.

3. Adolescent Reproductive Health and Teenage Pregnancy: The absence of adolescent-friendly health services and stigma around sexual and reproductive education contributes to high rates of teenage pregnancy, perpetuating a cycle of poverty and early school dropout.

Indeed, the reproductive health crisis among adolescent girls in urban slums constitutes a silent emergency. According to the National Family Health Survey-5 (NFHS-5, 2019–21), 7.9% of urban females aged 15–19 were either pregnant or already mothers. The lack of access to adolescent-friendly healthcare services exacerbated by misinformation, cultural stigma, and inadequate service delivery - results in unsafe abortions and maternal complications. These outcomes not only endanger adolescent well-being but also reinforce gendered educational dropouts and limited economic participation, further entrenching intergenerational poverty.

In this context, the paper seeks to propose evidence-based, context-sensitive, and scalable policy interventions that transition slums from zones of precarity to ecosystems of human potential. Grounded in a review of secondary data sources and comparative policy analysis, this inquiry interrogates the disjuncture between state-level policy design and implementation gaps in urban informal settlements.

Preliminary analysis suggests that youth unemployment in slums stems from a persistent mismatch between formal education curricula and labor market demands, compounded by the limited penetration of government skill development programs such as the Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY). Simultaneously, gendered disparities in school retention rates and limited access to reproductive health services highlight the necessity of adopting a multi-sectoral, intersectional, and gender-inclusive policy lens. The challenges, while distinct, are mutually reinforcing and must be addressed through holistic, community-based strategies that place slum residents - not just policies - at the center of the development discourse. 2. State in Focus: Urban Informal Settlements in Maharashtra

Maharashtra - particularly its capital, Mumbai - presents a critical case for examining urban informality and the challenges of inclusive development. According to Census 2011, over 10.2 million individuals in the state reside in slum settlements, with approximately 42% of Mumbai’s population living in highly congested informal clusters such as Dharavi, Shivaji Nagar, and Govandi. These settlements are characterized by chronic infrastructural deficits, high population densities, and multidimensional socio-economic vulnerabilities (MoHUA, 2020). Despite their integral role in sustaining the urban informal economy, these communities continue to face barriers to accessing state services. Structural issues such as inadequate sanitation, gender-based violence risks, limited reproductive healthcare, and low formal skill training participation remain pervasive. Moreover, administrative fragmentation and the absence of robust slum-level data systems further constrain programmatic interventions. Although Maharashtra has implemented a variety of state-led schemes - such as the Slum Rehabilitation Authority (SRA) and municipal-level health and education initiatives - evidence suggests that these programs often fail at the last-mile delivery stage, particularly in informal settlements (Bhide, 2016; TISS-UHUD, 2021). This underscores the need for locally grounded, community-led models of urban governance that are responsive to the spatial and demographic heterogeneity of slum populations. A Maharashtra-focused case study is particularly instructive not only due to the scale of urban informality, but also because the state has served as a laboratory for both policy experimentation and reform. A replicable, people-centered strategy implemented in high-density zones like Mumbai has the potential to inform broader national urban poverty alleviation efforts. 3. Legal and Policy Framework: National Schemes and Implementation Gaps

India has established a comprehensive policy architecture aimed at promoting equitable access to livelihoods, education, and healthcare. However, the translation of these frameworks into meaningful change within urban informal settlements remains inconsistent and uneven. This section critically examines the key policy instruments relevant to slum upliftment, focusing on their design, scope, and implementation limitations.

3.1 Vocational Training and Urban Livelihoods

Several flagship initiatives target youth employability and entrepreneurship:

1. The Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY) and the Skill India Mission were designed to bridge the skill gap by providing market-aligned vocational training. However, slum-specific outreachremains limited, and follow-up tracking of trainees is weak, particularly in urban clusters with transient populations (Ministry of Rural Development, 2022).

2. The National Urban Livelihoods Mission (NULM) aims to enhance self-employment and group-based enterprises among the urban poor. Despite its inclusive design, slum youth often face barriers related to documentation, financial literacy, and digital access, which undermine the uptake and sustainability of such schemes (NIUA, 2020).
   

3.2 Gender and Education Policies

1. The Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009 guarantees free and compulsory education for children aged 6–14. However, enforcement remains patchy in informal settlements, where high migration rates, overcrowded schools, and poor infrastructure reduce attendance and learning outcomes.

2. The Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) campaign has had some success in improving awareness regarding girls’ education and gender equality, yet context-specific interventions tailored to slum geographies remain underdeveloped. Studies have shown that cash transfers or safety-related school infrastructure improvements are more impactful in such settings (J-PAL South Asia, 2021).
   

3.3 Adolescent Reproductive Health and Rights

1. The Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK) provides a framework for addressing adolescent health through peer education and adolescent-friendly clinics. However, urban implementation has lagged behind rural rollout, and clinics are often inaccessible or underutilized due to social stigma and lack of female health personnel (MoHFW, 2021).

2. Although the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (2006) provides legal safeguards, enforcement remains weak in urban slums where underage marriage is often driven by economic precarity and lack of education. Community engagement mechanisms are rarely integrated into implementation plans.
   

3.4 Global Comparative Practices

Lessons can also be drawn from international experiences:

1. Brazil’s Bolsa Família program effectively linked cash incentives to school attendance and health checkups, significantly reducing school dropout and early pregnancies among adolescent girls in favelas.

2. Kenya’s Ushahidi platform, originally developed for crisis mapping, was adapted to improve maternal and reproductive health access in Nairobi’s slums through crowdsourced, real-time data reporting on service gaps.

These international examples highlight the importance of integrating social protection with digital innovation and localized service delivery - an approach that remains underutilized in India’s urban slum governance landscape. 4. The Invisible Backbone: Skill Deficit and the Employment Crisis

The Indian economy is overwhelmingly informal, with an estimated 93% of the workforce employed outside the formal sector (NSSO, 2020). Within this structure, urban slum youth remain disproportionately underrepresented in formal employment due to systemic barriers including inadequate access to vocational training, lack of certification, and exclusion from skilling ecosystems.

Fig: The bar chart compares informal employment—93% in the national workforce vs. 75% among slum youth-highlighting persistent skill gaps and limited access to formal training among slum populations.

Several structural impediments limit the employability of slum residents:

1. Absence of formal skill credentials restricts entry into regulated or better-paying jobs.

2. Language barriers, financial constraints, and low digital literacy reduce awareness and uptake of available government skill programs.

3. The geographic and infrastructural disconnect between training centers and slum settlements further restricts access.

Despite the presence of flagship national schemes like Skill India Mission and DDU-GKY, many slum communities remain untouched due to poor targeting, lack of decentralized training infrastructure, and limited post-training placement support. Without systemic interventions, slum youth remain locked in low-wage, precarious labor cycles with little opportunity for upward mobility. 5. When Puberty Ends Education: Gender Gaps in Slum Schooling Education discontinuity among adolescent girls in slums remains a persistent and multilayered challenge. While girls in informal settlements often aspire to continue schooling, social, infrastructural, and cultural barriers curtail their educational journeys.

Fig: This bar graph shows dropout rates post-Class 8 in slums - 27% for girls vs. 20% for boys- revealing a significant gender gap. Factors like early marriage, poor menstrual hygiene infrastructure, caregiving responsibilities, and safety concerns disproportionately affect girls’ education.

According to the ASER 2022 report, dropout rates among girls in slum areas are approximately 35% higher than those of boys after Class 8. Key drivers include:

1. Early marriage and caregiving responsibilities.

2. Inadequate menstrual hygiene management and absence of sanitation facilities in schools.

3. Lack of secure transportation and concerns around physical safety.

These barriers reflect deeply entrenched gender norms and infrastructural deficits. The cumulative result is a cycle of disempowerment, wherein adolescent girls are denied the opportunity to attain literacy, agency, and employment pathways. Without strategic interventions, these gaps will continue to erode the developmental potential of entire communities.

6. A Silent Emergency: Teenage Pregnancy and Health Access

Reproductive health in urban slums is often shrouded in silence, stigma, and systemic neglect. While national programs such as the Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK) exist to address adolescent health, their implementation remains fragmented—particularly in urban settings.

Fig: This chart reveals that 7.9% of adolescent girls (15–19) in urban slums are pregnant or mothers, yet only 27% receive reproductive health counseling. The gap underscores a critical lack of awareness and access to essential adolescent health services.

As per NFHS-5 (2019–21), 7.9% of urban girls aged 15–19 are either pregnant or mothers. However, only 27% of adolescent girls in urban areas reported having access to reproductive health counseling. These statistics point to a troubling confluence of:

1. Early and coerced sexual activity, often linked to child marriage or exploitation.

2. Widespread misinformation, cultural taboos, and lack of comprehensive sex education.

3. Under-resourced healthcare infrastructure in slums, with few trained female health workers or adolescent-friendly clinics.

The implications are far-reaching-not only for individual health outcomes but also for educational discontinuity, economic exclusion, and gender inequality. Reproductive health, therefore, must be repositioned as a foundational pillar of slum upliftment.

7. Policy Gaps and Missed Opportunities

Despite the proliferation of targeted social schemes in India, a significant policy-implementation gap persists in urban informal settlements.

Fig: This chart estimates policy implementation effectiveness in slums: Skill Training (40%), Girls’ Education (50%), and Teen Health Services (35%). The data highlights the urgent need for localized strategies, community engagement, and context-specific interventions. Key systemic limitations include:

1. Governance Exclusion: Many slum settlements fall outside formal planning boundaries, limiting access to state services and welfare entitlements.

2. Data Deficits: Outdated or unavailable slum-level data hinders effective policy targeting and monitoring.

3. Trust Deficits: A long history of neglect and displacement has fostered skepticism among slum residents toward government initiatives, reducing participation and uptake.

The underperformance of policies in slums is not merely a logistical failure—it is a structural injustice. Each missed opportunity to educate, train, or support a slum resident translates into a lost economic contributor, a stunted future, and a setback to national development goals. 8. The Way Forward: Translating Policy into People-Centered Action Policy architecture alone is insufficient. Real change occurs only when policy blueprints translate into lived realities for marginalized communities. The transformation of urban slums requires moving from ministry-level discourse to mohalla-level impact, emphasizing human-centered, participatory, and localized approaches.

8.1 Expanding Vocational Training Access

1. Establish Community Skill Hubs within or near slum clusters offering market-aligned courses (e.g., tailoring, retail, construction, hospitality).

2. Encourage public-private partnerships (PPPs) and incentivize collaborations between NGOs (like Pratham) and municipal bodies.

3. Introduce Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) and bridge programs to formalize informal skills and improve job-readiness.

8.2 Addressing Gender Gaps in Education

1. Launch Slum Girl Education Missions with scholarships, safe transport, and access to menstrual hygiene kits.

2. Work with organizations like Educate Girls to conduct community sensitization campaigns, particularly targeting parents and religious/community leaders.

3. Institutionalize life-skills and gender sensitization programs within schools to promote retention and resilience among adolescent girls.

8.3 Improving Adolescent Reproductive Health

1. Expand Urban Mohalla Clinics to include dedicated adolescent health corners staffed by trained female counselors.

2. Utilize community health workers to deliver peer-to-peer reproductive health education and distribute basic hygiene kits.

3. Integrate comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) into both school curricula and non-formal learning settings, ensuring age-appropriate and culturally sensitive content.

8.4 Cross-Sectoral Coordination and Data-Driven Governance

1. Use Aadhaar-linked data and GIS mapping to identify service gaps and improve targeting.

2. Establish Slum Development Committees composed of local residents, frontline workers, and civic bodies to guide interventions and improve accountability.

3. Mobilize Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) contributions for infrastructure, scholarships, and localized digital skilling initiatives, with a focus on gender equity and youth empowerment. Conclusion: Slums Are Not Problems - They’re Untapped Potential

   Slum upliftment must be understood not solely through the lens of infrastructure, but as a multidimensional strategy for enabling dignity, autonomy, and opportunity. Research and on-ground interventions consistently show that integrated approaches—focusing on education, health, and livelihoods—yield sustainable outcomes for marginalized urban populations.

   Skill development initiatives tailored to the needs of slum youth have demonstrated strong potential to enhance employment prospects and economic mobility. Concurrently, efforts to retain girls in school have shown a direct association with improved health, delayed marriage, and enhanced decision-making capacities within households. Addressing adolescent reproductive health through accessible and community-based services further strengthens the foundations of long-term development.

   Successful models across India illustrate the value of community participation, decentralized governance, and locally adapted service delivery. When communities are engaged as partners rather than recipients, outcomes are more durable and contextually relevant. This reinforces the necessity for policies that are not only inclusive but also sensitive to the diverse social and cultural realities of urban poor settlements.

   Slums should be viewed not as burdens but as sites of resilience and potential. Investing in people—especially in the education, skills, and health of youth and adolescent girls—is central to achieving inclusive urban growth. The transformation of India’s cities depends on how effectively we empower those historically excluded from its development narrative. References: 1. Bhide, A. (2016). Challenges in urban informal settlements: Case study of Mumbai. Tata Institute of Social Sciences.

   2. J-PAL South Asia. (2021). Impact of cash transfers and school infrastructure improvements on girls’ education in slum areas. Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab. https://www.povertyactionlab.org

   3. Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. (2020). State of urban informal settlements in India. Government of India. https://mohua.gov.in

   4. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. (2021). Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK): Annual report. Government of India. https://mohfw.gov.in

   5. Ministry of Rural Development. (2022). Annual report on Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana. Government of India. https://rural.nic.in

   6. National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), 2019–21. (2021). Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. http://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-5Reports.shtml

   7. National Institute of Urban Affairs. (2020). Urban livelihoods and informal settlements: Barriers and opportunities. NIUA. https://niua.org

   8. National Statistical Office. (2020). Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2019–20. Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. https://mospi.gov.in

   9. Pratham Education Foundation. (2022). Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2022. https://asercentre.org/aser-2022

   10. TISS-UHUD. (2021). Urban health and development: Informal settlements study. Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Urban Health and Development Centre.

   11. World Bank. (2023). Urban population (% of total population) – India. World Bank Open Data. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=IN

Preserving vernacular architecture and sustainability in rural housing through PMAY-G

Author: Sarvajit Sanjeev, M.A. Social Entrepreneurship, TISS, Mumbai and Research Intern, BNSK Introduction: Housing in rural India is not merely a physical structure; it embodies generational heritage, sustains rural economies, and serves as a space for social and cultural reproduction (Kumar et al., 2017). Recognizing the centrality of housing to rural well-being, the Government of India launched the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Gramin (PMAY-G)in 2016 under the Ministry of Rural Development. This scheme aims to provide "Housing for All" by offering financial

Fig- Unfinished PMAY-G house of Mr. Darma Kanta Gogoi, Borkula Village (Dibrugarh, Assam) assistance to homeless and inadequately housed rural households. It builds upon the legacy of the Indira Awas Yojana(1985), which was the first national attempt to address rural housing for people below the poverty line. Under PMAY-G, beneficiaries receive INR 1,20,000 in plain areas and INR 1,30,000 in hilly regions as direct financial support for constructing a dwelling unit. The scheme is further integrated with other central initiatives such as the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Ujjwala Yojana, and Saubhagya Yojana, thereby striving for a holistic rural habitat (Government of India, 2025). PMAY-G targets the construction of nearly 2.95 crore houses by 2028–29, aiming to bridge the rural housing deficit while promoting social inclusion. Despite this ambitious vision, critical challenges remain in its implementation. The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Rural Development (Nair, 2025) noted that several eligible beneficiaries remain excluded due to issues such as unavailability of clear land titles, lack of documentation, and administrative delays. Additionally, the scheme’s financial allocation often proves inadequate in constructing resilient and context-sensitive housing, especially in environmentally vulnerable or culturally diverse regions. One of the major limitations of PMAY-G is its reliance on standardized design templates that lack sensitivity to vernacular architecture, local climate conditions, and traditional spatial practices. The scheme often envisions housing as uniform, detached units that fail to accommodate the multi-functional and intergenerational nature of rural homes. This undermines both the ecological sustainability and socio-cultural coherence of rural settlements (Kurowska & Kowalczyk, 2022). Accordingly, this paper investigates how the PMAY-G framework can be augmented to incorporate sustainability principles and vernacular architectural traditions, ensuring that rural housing is not only affordable but also resilient, culturally rooted, and environmentally sustainable. Legal and Policy Framework: The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Gramin (PMAY-G) represents a significant policy initiative aimed at addressing India’s rural housing deficit. From a legal and policy standpoint, its foundation rests on earlier frameworks that progressively recognized housing as a productive investment rather than a consumptive expenditure. For instance, the National Housing Policy of 1988 emphasized that housing should be treated as a driver of social development and employment generation. It highlighted the need for essential housing amenities such as kitchens, potable water, sanitation, electricity, drainage, and access roads (Kumar et al., 2017, p. 21).

Despite this early recognition, rural housing has remained under-prioritized in subsequent national frameworks. The National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy (NUHHP) 2007 predominantly focused on urban areas, driven by the higher return on investment (RoI) associated with urban housing markets. The relatively low RoI in rural housing projects led to reduced private sector participation and consequently limited government investment.

Comparative global experiences offer valuable insights. The Turkish Housing Model, for example, underscores the value of integrating local construction materials, owner income levels, and socio-cultural habits into rural housing design. Traditional Turkish homes typically reflect greater harmony with the environment than contemporary constructions, blending indigenous architecture with modern techniques (Usta et al., 2017, pp. 231-236).

Similarly, India possesses a rich tradition of regional housing models that are inherently sustainable and culturally contextual. The Nalukettu architectural style from Kerala, for instance, features a central courtyard flanked by four blocks, each dedicated to specific household functions such as cooking, dining, sleeping, and grain storage. This design also includes integrated water storage facilities, bathing tanks, and cattle shelters, making it ideally suited for joint families and agrarian lifestyles (Ketki, 2021).

The current PMAY-G framework, however, fails to leverage these indigenous architectural forms. It continues to apply standardized design norms, often using industrial materials such as cement and bricks, which are environmentally taxing and financially burdensome. There is a pressing need for the scheme to adopt a decentralized and regionally adaptive policy approach, one that accommodates traditional knowledge systems and environmentally sensitive practices while ensuring affordability and resilience. Key Challenges and Analytical Insights in Rural Housing One of the main challenges in rural housing is the shortage of houses. However, the recent

implementation of PMAY-G has ensured housing availability to 3.5 crore beneficiaries, expecting another two crore beneficiaries to be added by 2028-29 (Ministry of Rural Development). Another challenge is the shortage of funds being provided to the beneficiaries. Currently, the amount provided to the beneficiary to construct their house is Rs 1,20,000 for plain areas and Rs 1,30,000 for hilly areas. This amount often falls short in terms of covering the entire structure, which is usually required by the rural household to finish their house. Rural houses have been constructed for generations, with costs much higher than the income of the household members. Much structural sensitivity needs to be considered while constructing the rural house. A rural house should have space for family members and accommodate cattle and grain.

Fig- A house design layout constructed under the PMAY-G scheme in Meghalaya For example, we have taken a model of a rural house constructed under the PMAY-G scheme in Meghalaya above. The house consists of a Verandah, a Sitting and Dining Hall, a Kitchen, and a Bedroom, and the total area is 355 sq. ft. This space is less compared to the existing rural houses in Meghalaya. Space is important as it promotes an active lifestyle, reduces stress, and improves air quality. It also holds great importance in terms of socializing and entertainment, which becomes important in the growth and development of the individual members. With limited space, mobility is reduced to a great extent. Also, the inner air quality is affected by reduced circulation. In addition, no space is provided for keeping any grains or livestock. Also, the use of materials needs to be considered, as most of them are industrial grade, suitable for urban settings, and use urban-type methods and tools. Rural housing should ideally consist of different components, such as natural space, which provides space for the survival of the biological species and also has ecological value; social space, where human beings thrive and interact with each other to provide meaningful experiences; cultural space, where the traditions and habits can be practiced freely without any obstruction, and economic space where the households perform their economic activities such as rearing livestock and cattle, doing traditional art and craft for the market. Also, the space should be characterized by limitedness, resistance, and variation (Kurowska, 2022). When we bring these aspects into the Indian context, we realize the importance of spaces, as most rural communities are engaged in rearing livestock, storing grains, practicing rituals and ceremonies, producing local handicrafts, and processing grains for livelihood. These are missing from the rural housing scheme, which has been undertaken for many years by different governments. There is a need to adopt the SDGs regarding Sustainable rural habitat. The rural habitat must be an enabler of economic activities comprising social, human, financial, natural, and physical capital. In terms of aligning it with the SDGs, they mainly include Physical capital (SDG11), which is disaster resistance, durability of the house, cultural alignment of the house, Natural capital (SDG 13), which provides for the conservation of virgin resources and energy efficiency in construction, Financial capital (SDG 8) which provides for the monetary value and economic activity that can be carried out, Human Capital (SDG 4) providing opportunities for skills enhancement and livelihood generation, Social Capital (SDG 1) which provides the necessities to survive such as a house, water, energy, and sanitation. Policy Recommendations and Best Practices:

Considering the implications of rural housing on the lives of rural families, we have understood that it is important to give place to traditional architectural styles and adopt sustainability practices when it comes to rural housing in the PMAY-G program. While constructing the rural house, emphasis must be placed upon the physical, natural, financial, human, and social capital. Rural houses are not just living spaces but also spaces where cultural practices and livelihood activities are undertaken. Hence, it becomes important to include the layout to enable the household members to practice their social, cultural, and economic habits. The amount of space allocated under the PMAY-G for one house is much less, and this needs to be extended considering the essential capital aspects. Instead of a one-time financial aid, emphasis can be placed on providing finance with low interest, which can be repaid by the beneficiary over a more extended period of time. Also, having locally available raw materials would make housing costs affordable and promote entrepreneurial efforts and sustainability in the community. The works of eminent architect Laurie Baker can be taken into account. He suggested using locally available materials to construct rural houses with enough space, ventilation, and lighting. His construction style involved using the materials of the village and improving sustainability. Some traditional architectural forms and practices that can be drawn for insights include the Vastu Shastra principles for design, layout, measurements, space arrangement, and spatial geometry. Current construction mainly relies on far-away concrete, which impacts the environment. Also, cement production causes much pollution, and sand mining causes water pollution and riverbed depletion. One of the examples of traditional Indian houses that can be considered is the Dhajji Dewari House design from Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. They are made by partially cutting the mountain slope, and the walls are raised to enclose a rectangular space. This kind of house requires very little energy, such as electricity for heating, and there is enough space for light and ventilation. The house is divided into three parts: the front part is for daytime activities, the inner parts for sleeping, and also where the cattle are kept. The Nalukettu form of house design from Kerala has a courtyard at the central space and is divided into four blocks. Each block has separate families and rooms. This form is very appropriate for joint families. The Chang house is an example from Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, where bamboo is prominent. The houses are usually raised by 1.5-2 m from the ground to provide safety from flooding during the monsoon seasons. This ground space is used for storing animal feed and also canoes to be used during flooding. The inner part of the house is usually warm, as bamboo keeps the interior part warmer. States have different styles and designs based on geographical suitability and adaptability. This needs to be considered when constructing a rural house, and having a default pattern may not be appropriate. More thought must be given to ecological diversity as rural households co-exist with animals and cattle. Conclusion:

Policymakers need to consider the different styles and materials used for rural housing. The importance of space and the geographical context in which the housing project is undertaken must be given. The use of materials that are more suitable for urban contexts needs to be reconsidered, as villages are places with ample resources. Using locally available resources promotes sustainability and, at the same time, safeguards the environment. The cement from faraway places contributes to pollution, and the sand that is brought contributes to riverbed depletion. The availability of finance with short-term interest instead of a one-time amount will help the beneficiaries to take upon the housing projects themselves. Also, community members may be provided with skills training on house construction, providing them with employment opportunities. Housing is a core component of the rural identity and the work of generations. They are more like symbols and representations of the past. Hence, preserving the symbol becomes important for rural housing projects like PMAY-G. This can be done by involving local community members while taking up the projects to understand the importance of each component. Providing capacity-building training to the community can also help make the local resources available for the projects. While undertaking the sustainability aspect, houses can be built using the local resources from the community (Pourtaheri and Hemmati, 2017). These resources can have durability and recyclability aspects. Overall, the housing projects can become more sustainable through the commitment and involvement of the community members, understanding their practices, and considering the sustainability aspect, which is already present in most of the village households. References:

1. Sobhana K Nair, Parliamentary panel flags gaps in implementation of rural housing scheme, The Hindu. Available at www.thehindu.com [Accessed 27th March, 2025]

2. Challenges to implementing PMAY. Shankar IAS Parliament. Available at www.shankariasparliament.com [Accessed 27th March, 2025]

3. Kumar et. al, 2017. Policy Imperatives for Rural Housing in India. Shelter, Vol. 18 No. 2 HUDCO Publication, pp. 20-26

4. Usta et. al, Sustainability of Traditional Buildings Located in Rural Area, Periodicals of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Vol.5, No.2, June 2017, pp. 231-236

5. Ketki, Sustainable Housing Practices from Traditional Indian Culture. Available at www.curiositysavestheplanet.com [Accessed 27th March, 2025]

6. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Gramin, 2025. Report onPMAY-G, Government of India

7. Kurowska K, Kowalczyk C. Rural Space Modeling—Contemporary Challenges. Land. 2022; 11(2):173. Available at https://doi.org [Accessed 27th March, 2025]

8. Pourtaheri, Mehdi and Hemmati, Shirin. Comparative Assessment of the Sustainability of Rural Housing in the Old and New Textures of Rural Areas: A Case Study in Villages of Central Area of Kabudarahang County. Journal of Sustainable Rural Development, May 2017, Volume 1, Number 1.