Bridging Urban Inequality: An Integrated Framework for Education, Skill Development, and Health Access in India’s Slum Communities

Author: Priyal Kanungo, Research Intern, BNSK 1. Introduction: The Duality of Urban Slums

Urban slums represent a paradox within the process of urbanization - sites of economic aspiration yet entrenched in structural adversity. As engines of informal labor and micro entrepreneurship, slums contribute significantly to urban economies. However, they remain excluded from formal urban planning frameworks and often lack access to basic entitlements and services. According to the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA, 2020), approximately 17% of India's urban population resides in slums, a figure that is projected to increase with the country’s expanding urban footprint.

India’s urbanization rate stood at 35% in 2020 and is projected to reach 40% by 2030 (World Bank, 2023). This demographic shift is accompanied by a parallel growth in informal settlements, leading to escalating socio-economic vulnerabilities among slum populations. The absence of integrated policy frameworks to address slum-specific challenges has deepened disparities in education, employment, and healthcare - particularly among marginalized sub-groups such as women and adolescents.

This paper identifies and examines three interrelated dimensions that critically shape the developmental trajectory of urban slum populations:

1. Vocational Training and Livelihood Access: Slum residents are disproportionately excluded from formal employment due to limited access to market-relevant skills and certification.

2. Gender Gaps in Education: Adolescent girls in slums face intersecting structural and cultural barriers, including early marriage, inadequate school infrastructure, and gendered social norms.

3. Adolescent Reproductive Health and Teenage Pregnancy: The absence of adolescent-friendly health services and stigma around sexual and reproductive education contributes to high rates of teenage pregnancy, perpetuating a cycle of poverty and early school dropout.

Indeed, the reproductive health crisis among adolescent girls in urban slums constitutes a silent emergency. According to the National Family Health Survey-5 (NFHS-5, 2019–21), 7.9% of urban females aged 15–19 were either pregnant or already mothers. The lack of access to adolescent-friendly healthcare services exacerbated by misinformation, cultural stigma, and inadequate service delivery - results in unsafe abortions and maternal complications. These outcomes not only endanger adolescent well-being but also reinforce gendered educational dropouts and limited economic participation, further entrenching intergenerational poverty.

In this context, the paper seeks to propose evidence-based, context-sensitive, and scalable policy interventions that transition slums from zones of precarity to ecosystems of human potential. Grounded in a review of secondary data sources and comparative policy analysis, this inquiry interrogates the disjuncture between state-level policy design and implementation gaps in urban informal settlements.

Preliminary analysis suggests that youth unemployment in slums stems from a persistent mismatch between formal education curricula and labor market demands, compounded by the limited penetration of government skill development programs such as the Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY). Simultaneously, gendered disparities in school retention rates and limited access to reproductive health services highlight the necessity of adopting a multi-sectoral, intersectional, and gender-inclusive policy lens. The challenges, while distinct, are mutually reinforcing and must be addressed through holistic, community-based strategies that place slum residents - not just policies - at the center of the development discourse. 2. State in Focus: Urban Informal Settlements in Maharashtra

Maharashtra - particularly its capital, Mumbai - presents a critical case for examining urban informality and the challenges of inclusive development. According to Census 2011, over 10.2 million individuals in the state reside in slum settlements, with approximately 42% of Mumbai’s population living in highly congested informal clusters such as Dharavi, Shivaji Nagar, and Govandi. These settlements are characterized by chronic infrastructural deficits, high population densities, and multidimensional socio-economic vulnerabilities (MoHUA, 2020). Despite their integral role in sustaining the urban informal economy, these communities continue to face barriers to accessing state services. Structural issues such as inadequate sanitation, gender-based violence risks, limited reproductive healthcare, and low formal skill training participation remain pervasive. Moreover, administrative fragmentation and the absence of robust slum-level data systems further constrain programmatic interventions. Although Maharashtra has implemented a variety of state-led schemes - such as the Slum Rehabilitation Authority (SRA) and municipal-level health and education initiatives - evidence suggests that these programs often fail at the last-mile delivery stage, particularly in informal settlements (Bhide, 2016; TISS-UHUD, 2021). This underscores the need for locally grounded, community-led models of urban governance that are responsive to the spatial and demographic heterogeneity of slum populations. A Maharashtra-focused case study is particularly instructive not only due to the scale of urban informality, but also because the state has served as a laboratory for both policy experimentation and reform. A replicable, people-centered strategy implemented in high-density zones like Mumbai has the potential to inform broader national urban poverty alleviation efforts. 3. Legal and Policy Framework: National Schemes and Implementation Gaps

India has established a comprehensive policy architecture aimed at promoting equitable access to livelihoods, education, and healthcare. However, the translation of these frameworks into meaningful change within urban informal settlements remains inconsistent and uneven. This section critically examines the key policy instruments relevant to slum upliftment, focusing on their design, scope, and implementation limitations.

3.1 Vocational Training and Urban Livelihoods

Several flagship initiatives target youth employability and entrepreneurship:

1. The Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY) and the Skill India Mission were designed to bridge the skill gap by providing market-aligned vocational training. However, slum-specific outreachremains limited, and follow-up tracking of trainees is weak, particularly in urban clusters with transient populations (Ministry of Rural Development, 2022).

2. The National Urban Livelihoods Mission (NULM) aims to enhance self-employment and group-based enterprises among the urban poor. Despite its inclusive design, slum youth often face barriers related to documentation, financial literacy, and digital access, which undermine the uptake and sustainability of such schemes (NIUA, 2020).
   

3.2 Gender and Education Policies

1. The Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009 guarantees free and compulsory education for children aged 6–14. However, enforcement remains patchy in informal settlements, where high migration rates, overcrowded schools, and poor infrastructure reduce attendance and learning outcomes.

2. The Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) campaign has had some success in improving awareness regarding girls’ education and gender equality, yet context-specific interventions tailored to slum geographies remain underdeveloped. Studies have shown that cash transfers or safety-related school infrastructure improvements are more impactful in such settings (J-PAL South Asia, 2021).
   

3.3 Adolescent Reproductive Health and Rights

1. The Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK) provides a framework for addressing adolescent health through peer education and adolescent-friendly clinics. However, urban implementation has lagged behind rural rollout, and clinics are often inaccessible or underutilized due to social stigma and lack of female health personnel (MoHFW, 2021).

2. Although the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (2006) provides legal safeguards, enforcement remains weak in urban slums where underage marriage is often driven by economic precarity and lack of education. Community engagement mechanisms are rarely integrated into implementation plans.
   

3.4 Global Comparative Practices

Lessons can also be drawn from international experiences:

1. Brazil’s Bolsa Família program effectively linked cash incentives to school attendance and health checkups, significantly reducing school dropout and early pregnancies among adolescent girls in favelas.

2. Kenya’s Ushahidi platform, originally developed for crisis mapping, was adapted to improve maternal and reproductive health access in Nairobi’s slums through crowdsourced, real-time data reporting on service gaps.

These international examples highlight the importance of integrating social protection with digital innovation and localized service delivery - an approach that remains underutilized in India’s urban slum governance landscape. 4. The Invisible Backbone: Skill Deficit and the Employment Crisis

The Indian economy is overwhelmingly informal, with an estimated 93% of the workforce employed outside the formal sector (NSSO, 2020). Within this structure, urban slum youth remain disproportionately underrepresented in formal employment due to systemic barriers including inadequate access to vocational training, lack of certification, and exclusion from skilling ecosystems.

Fig: The bar chart compares informal employment—93% in the national workforce vs. 75% among slum youth-highlighting persistent skill gaps and limited access to formal training among slum populations.

Several structural impediments limit the employability of slum residents:

1. Absence of formal skill credentials restricts entry into regulated or better-paying jobs.

2. Language barriers, financial constraints, and low digital literacy reduce awareness and uptake of available government skill programs.

3. The geographic and infrastructural disconnect between training centers and slum settlements further restricts access.

Despite the presence of flagship national schemes like Skill India Mission and DDU-GKY, many slum communities remain untouched due to poor targeting, lack of decentralized training infrastructure, and limited post-training placement support. Without systemic interventions, slum youth remain locked in low-wage, precarious labor cycles with little opportunity for upward mobility. 5. When Puberty Ends Education: Gender Gaps in Slum Schooling Education discontinuity among adolescent girls in slums remains a persistent and multilayered challenge. While girls in informal settlements often aspire to continue schooling, social, infrastructural, and cultural barriers curtail their educational journeys.

Fig: This bar graph shows dropout rates post-Class 8 in slums - 27% for girls vs. 20% for boys- revealing a significant gender gap. Factors like early marriage, poor menstrual hygiene infrastructure, caregiving responsibilities, and safety concerns disproportionately affect girls’ education.

According to the ASER 2022 report, dropout rates among girls in slum areas are approximately 35% higher than those of boys after Class 8. Key drivers include:

1. Early marriage and caregiving responsibilities.

2. Inadequate menstrual hygiene management and absence of sanitation facilities in schools.

3. Lack of secure transportation and concerns around physical safety.

These barriers reflect deeply entrenched gender norms and infrastructural deficits. The cumulative result is a cycle of disempowerment, wherein adolescent girls are denied the opportunity to attain literacy, agency, and employment pathways. Without strategic interventions, these gaps will continue to erode the developmental potential of entire communities.

6. A Silent Emergency: Teenage Pregnancy and Health Access

Reproductive health in urban slums is often shrouded in silence, stigma, and systemic neglect. While national programs such as the Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK) exist to address adolescent health, their implementation remains fragmented—particularly in urban settings.

Fig: This chart reveals that 7.9% of adolescent girls (15–19) in urban slums are pregnant or mothers, yet only 27% receive reproductive health counseling. The gap underscores a critical lack of awareness and access to essential adolescent health services.

As per NFHS-5 (2019–21), 7.9% of urban girls aged 15–19 are either pregnant or mothers. However, only 27% of adolescent girls in urban areas reported having access to reproductive health counseling. These statistics point to a troubling confluence of:

1. Early and coerced sexual activity, often linked to child marriage or exploitation.

2. Widespread misinformation, cultural taboos, and lack of comprehensive sex education.

3. Under-resourced healthcare infrastructure in slums, with few trained female health workers or adolescent-friendly clinics.

The implications are far-reaching-not only for individual health outcomes but also for educational discontinuity, economic exclusion, and gender inequality. Reproductive health, therefore, must be repositioned as a foundational pillar of slum upliftment.

7. Policy Gaps and Missed Opportunities

Despite the proliferation of targeted social schemes in India, a significant policy-implementation gap persists in urban informal settlements.

Fig: This chart estimates policy implementation effectiveness in slums: Skill Training (40%), Girls’ Education (50%), and Teen Health Services (35%). The data highlights the urgent need for localized strategies, community engagement, and context-specific interventions. Key systemic limitations include:

1. Governance Exclusion: Many slum settlements fall outside formal planning boundaries, limiting access to state services and welfare entitlements.

2. Data Deficits: Outdated or unavailable slum-level data hinders effective policy targeting and monitoring.

3. Trust Deficits: A long history of neglect and displacement has fostered skepticism among slum residents toward government initiatives, reducing participation and uptake.

The underperformance of policies in slums is not merely a logistical failure—it is a structural injustice. Each missed opportunity to educate, train, or support a slum resident translates into a lost economic contributor, a stunted future, and a setback to national development goals. 8. The Way Forward: Translating Policy into People-Centered Action Policy architecture alone is insufficient. Real change occurs only when policy blueprints translate into lived realities for marginalized communities. The transformation of urban slums requires moving from ministry-level discourse to mohalla-level impact, emphasizing human-centered, participatory, and localized approaches.

8.1 Expanding Vocational Training Access

1. Establish Community Skill Hubs within or near slum clusters offering market-aligned courses (e.g., tailoring, retail, construction, hospitality).

2. Encourage public-private partnerships (PPPs) and incentivize collaborations between NGOs (like Pratham) and municipal bodies.

3. Introduce Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) and bridge programs to formalize informal skills and improve job-readiness.

8.2 Addressing Gender Gaps in Education

1. Launch Slum Girl Education Missions with scholarships, safe transport, and access to menstrual hygiene kits.

2. Work with organizations like Educate Girls to conduct community sensitization campaigns, particularly targeting parents and religious/community leaders.

3. Institutionalize life-skills and gender sensitization programs within schools to promote retention and resilience among adolescent girls.

8.3 Improving Adolescent Reproductive Health

1. Expand Urban Mohalla Clinics to include dedicated adolescent health corners staffed by trained female counselors.

2. Utilize community health workers to deliver peer-to-peer reproductive health education and distribute basic hygiene kits.

3. Integrate comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) into both school curricula and non-formal learning settings, ensuring age-appropriate and culturally sensitive content.

8.4 Cross-Sectoral Coordination and Data-Driven Governance

1. Use Aadhaar-linked data and GIS mapping to identify service gaps and improve targeting.

2. Establish Slum Development Committees composed of local residents, frontline workers, and civic bodies to guide interventions and improve accountability.

3. Mobilize Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) contributions for infrastructure, scholarships, and localized digital skilling initiatives, with a focus on gender equity and youth empowerment. Conclusion: Slums Are Not Problems - They’re Untapped Potential

   Slum upliftment must be understood not solely through the lens of infrastructure, but as a multidimensional strategy for enabling dignity, autonomy, and opportunity. Research and on-ground interventions consistently show that integrated approaches—focusing on education, health, and livelihoods—yield sustainable outcomes for marginalized urban populations.

   Skill development initiatives tailored to the needs of slum youth have demonstrated strong potential to enhance employment prospects and economic mobility. Concurrently, efforts to retain girls in school have shown a direct association with improved health, delayed marriage, and enhanced decision-making capacities within households. Addressing adolescent reproductive health through accessible and community-based services further strengthens the foundations of long-term development.

   Successful models across India illustrate the value of community participation, decentralized governance, and locally adapted service delivery. When communities are engaged as partners rather than recipients, outcomes are more durable and contextually relevant. This reinforces the necessity for policies that are not only inclusive but also sensitive to the diverse social and cultural realities of urban poor settlements.

   Slums should be viewed not as burdens but as sites of resilience and potential. Investing in people—especially in the education, skills, and health of youth and adolescent girls—is central to achieving inclusive urban growth. The transformation of India’s cities depends on how effectively we empower those historically excluded from its development narrative. References: 1. Bhide, A. (2016). Challenges in urban informal settlements: Case study of Mumbai. Tata Institute of Social Sciences.

   2. J-PAL South Asia. (2021). Impact of cash transfers and school infrastructure improvements on girls’ education in slum areas. Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab. https://www.povertyactionlab.org

   3. Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. (2020). State of urban informal settlements in India. Government of India. https://mohua.gov.in

   4. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. (2021). Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK): Annual report. Government of India. https://mohfw.gov.in

   5. Ministry of Rural Development. (2022). Annual report on Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana. Government of India. https://rural.nic.in

   6. National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), 2019–21. (2021). Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. http://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-5Reports.shtml

   7. National Institute of Urban Affairs. (2020). Urban livelihoods and informal settlements: Barriers and opportunities. NIUA. https://niua.org

   8. National Statistical Office. (2020). Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2019–20. Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. https://mospi.gov.in

   9. Pratham Education Foundation. (2022). Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2022. https://asercentre.org/aser-2022

   10. TISS-UHUD. (2021). Urban health and development: Informal settlements study. Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Urban Health and Development Centre.

   11. World Bank. (2023). Urban population (% of total population) – India. World Bank Open Data. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=IN

Preserving vernacular architecture and sustainability in rural housing through PMAY-G

Author: Sarvajit Sanjeev, M.A. Social Entrepreneurship, TISS, Mumbai and Research Intern, BNSK Introduction: Housing in rural India is not merely a physical structure; it embodies generational heritage, sustains rural economies, and serves as a space for social and cultural reproduction (Kumar et al., 2017). Recognizing the centrality of housing to rural well-being, the Government of India launched the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Gramin (PMAY-G)in 2016 under the Ministry of Rural Development. This scheme aims to provide "Housing for All" by offering financial

Fig- Unfinished PMAY-G house of Mr. Darma Kanta Gogoi, Borkula Village (Dibrugarh, Assam) assistance to homeless and inadequately housed rural households. It builds upon the legacy of the Indira Awas Yojana(1985), which was the first national attempt to address rural housing for people below the poverty line. Under PMAY-G, beneficiaries receive INR 1,20,000 in plain areas and INR 1,30,000 in hilly regions as direct financial support for constructing a dwelling unit. The scheme is further integrated with other central initiatives such as the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Ujjwala Yojana, and Saubhagya Yojana, thereby striving for a holistic rural habitat (Government of India, 2025). PMAY-G targets the construction of nearly 2.95 crore houses by 2028–29, aiming to bridge the rural housing deficit while promoting social inclusion. Despite this ambitious vision, critical challenges remain in its implementation. The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Rural Development (Nair, 2025) noted that several eligible beneficiaries remain excluded due to issues such as unavailability of clear land titles, lack of documentation, and administrative delays. Additionally, the scheme’s financial allocation often proves inadequate in constructing resilient and context-sensitive housing, especially in environmentally vulnerable or culturally diverse regions. One of the major limitations of PMAY-G is its reliance on standardized design templates that lack sensitivity to vernacular architecture, local climate conditions, and traditional spatial practices. The scheme often envisions housing as uniform, detached units that fail to accommodate the multi-functional and intergenerational nature of rural homes. This undermines both the ecological sustainability and socio-cultural coherence of rural settlements (Kurowska & Kowalczyk, 2022). Accordingly, this paper investigates how the PMAY-G framework can be augmented to incorporate sustainability principles and vernacular architectural traditions, ensuring that rural housing is not only affordable but also resilient, culturally rooted, and environmentally sustainable. Legal and Policy Framework: The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Gramin (PMAY-G) represents a significant policy initiative aimed at addressing India’s rural housing deficit. From a legal and policy standpoint, its foundation rests on earlier frameworks that progressively recognized housing as a productive investment rather than a consumptive expenditure. For instance, the National Housing Policy of 1988 emphasized that housing should be treated as a driver of social development and employment generation. It highlighted the need for essential housing amenities such as kitchens, potable water, sanitation, electricity, drainage, and access roads (Kumar et al., 2017, p. 21).

Despite this early recognition, rural housing has remained under-prioritized in subsequent national frameworks. The National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy (NUHHP) 2007 predominantly focused on urban areas, driven by the higher return on investment (RoI) associated with urban housing markets. The relatively low RoI in rural housing projects led to reduced private sector participation and consequently limited government investment.

Comparative global experiences offer valuable insights. The Turkish Housing Model, for example, underscores the value of integrating local construction materials, owner income levels, and socio-cultural habits into rural housing design. Traditional Turkish homes typically reflect greater harmony with the environment than contemporary constructions, blending indigenous architecture with modern techniques (Usta et al., 2017, pp. 231-236).

Similarly, India possesses a rich tradition of regional housing models that are inherently sustainable and culturally contextual. The Nalukettu architectural style from Kerala, for instance, features a central courtyard flanked by four blocks, each dedicated to specific household functions such as cooking, dining, sleeping, and grain storage. This design also includes integrated water storage facilities, bathing tanks, and cattle shelters, making it ideally suited for joint families and agrarian lifestyles (Ketki, 2021).

The current PMAY-G framework, however, fails to leverage these indigenous architectural forms. It continues to apply standardized design norms, often using industrial materials such as cement and bricks, which are environmentally taxing and financially burdensome. There is a pressing need for the scheme to adopt a decentralized and regionally adaptive policy approach, one that accommodates traditional knowledge systems and environmentally sensitive practices while ensuring affordability and resilience. Key Challenges and Analytical Insights in Rural Housing One of the main challenges in rural housing is the shortage of houses. However, the recent

implementation of PMAY-G has ensured housing availability to 3.5 crore beneficiaries, expecting another two crore beneficiaries to be added by 2028-29 (Ministry of Rural Development). Another challenge is the shortage of funds being provided to the beneficiaries. Currently, the amount provided to the beneficiary to construct their house is Rs 1,20,000 for plain areas and Rs 1,30,000 for hilly areas. This amount often falls short in terms of covering the entire structure, which is usually required by the rural household to finish their house. Rural houses have been constructed for generations, with costs much higher than the income of the household members. Much structural sensitivity needs to be considered while constructing the rural house. A rural house should have space for family members and accommodate cattle and grain.

Fig- A house design layout constructed under the PMAY-G scheme in Meghalaya For example, we have taken a model of a rural house constructed under the PMAY-G scheme in Meghalaya above. The house consists of a Verandah, a Sitting and Dining Hall, a Kitchen, and a Bedroom, and the total area is 355 sq. ft. This space is less compared to the existing rural houses in Meghalaya. Space is important as it promotes an active lifestyle, reduces stress, and improves air quality. It also holds great importance in terms of socializing and entertainment, which becomes important in the growth and development of the individual members. With limited space, mobility is reduced to a great extent. Also, the inner air quality is affected by reduced circulation. In addition, no space is provided for keeping any grains or livestock. Also, the use of materials needs to be considered, as most of them are industrial grade, suitable for urban settings, and use urban-type methods and tools. Rural housing should ideally consist of different components, such as natural space, which provides space for the survival of the biological species and also has ecological value; social space, where human beings thrive and interact with each other to provide meaningful experiences; cultural space, where the traditions and habits can be practiced freely without any obstruction, and economic space where the households perform their economic activities such as rearing livestock and cattle, doing traditional art and craft for the market. Also, the space should be characterized by limitedness, resistance, and variation (Kurowska, 2022). When we bring these aspects into the Indian context, we realize the importance of spaces, as most rural communities are engaged in rearing livestock, storing grains, practicing rituals and ceremonies, producing local handicrafts, and processing grains for livelihood. These are missing from the rural housing scheme, which has been undertaken for many years by different governments. There is a need to adopt the SDGs regarding Sustainable rural habitat. The rural habitat must be an enabler of economic activities comprising social, human, financial, natural, and physical capital. In terms of aligning it with the SDGs, they mainly include Physical capital (SDG11), which is disaster resistance, durability of the house, cultural alignment of the house, Natural capital (SDG 13), which provides for the conservation of virgin resources and energy efficiency in construction, Financial capital (SDG 8) which provides for the monetary value and economic activity that can be carried out, Human Capital (SDG 4) providing opportunities for skills enhancement and livelihood generation, Social Capital (SDG 1) which provides the necessities to survive such as a house, water, energy, and sanitation. Policy Recommendations and Best Practices:

Considering the implications of rural housing on the lives of rural families, we have understood that it is important to give place to traditional architectural styles and adopt sustainability practices when it comes to rural housing in the PMAY-G program. While constructing the rural house, emphasis must be placed upon the physical, natural, financial, human, and social capital. Rural houses are not just living spaces but also spaces where cultural practices and livelihood activities are undertaken. Hence, it becomes important to include the layout to enable the household members to practice their social, cultural, and economic habits. The amount of space allocated under the PMAY-G for one house is much less, and this needs to be extended considering the essential capital aspects. Instead of a one-time financial aid, emphasis can be placed on providing finance with low interest, which can be repaid by the beneficiary over a more extended period of time. Also, having locally available raw materials would make housing costs affordable and promote entrepreneurial efforts and sustainability in the community. The works of eminent architect Laurie Baker can be taken into account. He suggested using locally available materials to construct rural houses with enough space, ventilation, and lighting. His construction style involved using the materials of the village and improving sustainability. Some traditional architectural forms and practices that can be drawn for insights include the Vastu Shastra principles for design, layout, measurements, space arrangement, and spatial geometry. Current construction mainly relies on far-away concrete, which impacts the environment. Also, cement production causes much pollution, and sand mining causes water pollution and riverbed depletion. One of the examples of traditional Indian houses that can be considered is the Dhajji Dewari House design from Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. They are made by partially cutting the mountain slope, and the walls are raised to enclose a rectangular space. This kind of house requires very little energy, such as electricity for heating, and there is enough space for light and ventilation. The house is divided into three parts: the front part is for daytime activities, the inner parts for sleeping, and also where the cattle are kept. The Nalukettu form of house design from Kerala has a courtyard at the central space and is divided into four blocks. Each block has separate families and rooms. This form is very appropriate for joint families. The Chang house is an example from Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, where bamboo is prominent. The houses are usually raised by 1.5-2 m from the ground to provide safety from flooding during the monsoon seasons. This ground space is used for storing animal feed and also canoes to be used during flooding. The inner part of the house is usually warm, as bamboo keeps the interior part warmer. States have different styles and designs based on geographical suitability and adaptability. This needs to be considered when constructing a rural house, and having a default pattern may not be appropriate. More thought must be given to ecological diversity as rural households co-exist with animals and cattle. Conclusion:

Policymakers need to consider the different styles and materials used for rural housing. The importance of space and the geographical context in which the housing project is undertaken must be given. The use of materials that are more suitable for urban contexts needs to be reconsidered, as villages are places with ample resources. Using locally available resources promotes sustainability and, at the same time, safeguards the environment. The cement from faraway places contributes to pollution, and the sand that is brought contributes to riverbed depletion. The availability of finance with short-term interest instead of a one-time amount will help the beneficiaries to take upon the housing projects themselves. Also, community members may be provided with skills training on house construction, providing them with employment opportunities. Housing is a core component of the rural identity and the work of generations. They are more like symbols and representations of the past. Hence, preserving the symbol becomes important for rural housing projects like PMAY-G. This can be done by involving local community members while taking up the projects to understand the importance of each component. Providing capacity-building training to the community can also help make the local resources available for the projects. While undertaking the sustainability aspect, houses can be built using the local resources from the community (Pourtaheri and Hemmati, 2017). These resources can have durability and recyclability aspects. Overall, the housing projects can become more sustainable through the commitment and involvement of the community members, understanding their practices, and considering the sustainability aspect, which is already present in most of the village households. References:

1. Sobhana K Nair, Parliamentary panel flags gaps in implementation of rural housing scheme, The Hindu. Available at www.thehindu.com [Accessed 27th March, 2025]

2. Challenges to implementing PMAY. Shankar IAS Parliament. Available at www.shankariasparliament.com [Accessed 27th March, 2025]

3. Kumar et. al, 2017. Policy Imperatives for Rural Housing in India. Shelter, Vol. 18 No. 2 HUDCO Publication, pp. 20-26

4. Usta et. al, Sustainability of Traditional Buildings Located in Rural Area, Periodicals of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Vol.5, No.2, June 2017, pp. 231-236

5. Ketki, Sustainable Housing Practices from Traditional Indian Culture. Available at www.curiositysavestheplanet.com [Accessed 27th March, 2025]

6. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Gramin, 2025. Report onPMAY-G, Government of India

7. Kurowska K, Kowalczyk C. Rural Space Modeling—Contemporary Challenges. Land. 2022; 11(2):173. Available at https://doi.org [Accessed 27th March, 2025]

8. Pourtaheri, Mehdi and Hemmati, Shirin. Comparative Assessment of the Sustainability of Rural Housing in the Old and New Textures of Rural Areas: A Case Study in Villages of Central Area of Kabudarahang County. Journal of Sustainable Rural Development, May 2017, Volume 1, Number 1.

Access to Micro-finance & Rural Credit for Entrepreneurship

Author: Anupam Jana, Research Intern, BNSK-Bharat 1. Introduction: Micro-finance, often referred to as microcredit, refers to financial services offered to individuals or small groups who are traditionally excluded from conventional banking services due to their low or irregular income, lack of collateral, or geographic isolation. In India, these services typically include microloans under ₹1 lakh, insurance, access to savings accounts, and other financial products that enable self-employment, small-scale enterprise, or economic stabilization (Budampati & Reddy, 2024). The foundational aim of microfinance is to provide economically vulnerable individuals - especially in rural and semi-rural areas - with the tools they need to participate in income-generating activities and build a financially secure future. According to Jaya Jagriti and Dr. Bablu Kumar (2023), this mechanism helps them break free from the clutches of informal moneylenders who often charge exorbitant interest rates and push borrowers into long-term indebtedness. In rural India, microfinance has proven especially transformative. It has allowed entrepreneurs to initiate or expand microenterprises, enabled farmers to invest in productive assets, and helped families cope with unexpected financial shocks. These ripple effects contribute not only to household-level economic stability but also to wider community development (Sri K. Vasudeva Rao, 2023).

One of the most celebrated microfinance models is the Grameen Model, pioneered in Bangladesh and successfully replicated in India. Under this model, women - who are often excluded from financial decision-making - form small borrower groups that provide mutual support and peer accountability. This group-based lending approach, which requires no collateral, has been particularly effective in improving repayment rates and reducing the risk of default, while also promoting social cohesion and financial empowerment (Neha Juneja, 2024). Moreover, microfinance has proven to be a gender-sensitive intervention by empowering women to take ownership of household finances, make informed decisions, and contribute actively to their families’ incomes. As women gain financial independence, the benefits spill over into better health, education, and nutrition outcomes for entire households, creating a multiplier effect that boosts human development indices at the grassroots level. In short, microfinance is not just a loan mechanism; it is a driver of empowerment, poverty reduction, and entrepreneurial energy. However, for it to truly fulfil this potential, there is a need for a well-aligned ecosystem of policies, capacity-building, consumer protection mechanisms, and awareness initiatives that support borrowers throughout their journey from credit access to enterprise growth. A clear understanding of the legal and regulatory architecture of India’s microfinance sector is essential to assess how credit access is enabled — or restricted — for rural entrepreneurs. 2. Legal and Policy Framework

Types of Microfinance Institutions (MFIs)	Legal Acts under which Registered
1) Not-for-Profit MFIs (a) NGO - MFIs (b) Non-profit Companies	a) Societies Registration Act, 1860 or similar Provincial Acts Indian Trust Act, 1882 b) Section 25 of the Companies Act, 1956
2) Mutual Benefit MFIs (a) Mutually Aided Cooperative Societies (MACS) and similarly set up institutions	Mutually Aided Cooperative Societies Act enacted by State Government
3) For Profit MFIs (a)Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs)	Indian Companies Act, 1956 Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934

Source: The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India India’s microfinance sector has evolved into one of the most dynamic segments of the financial services industry, with significant implications for rural credit and entrepreneurship. Historically, the sector experienced exponential growth - averaging over 50% annually in the early 2010s (Prakash Singh, 2010–11) - attracting interest from private investors, philanthropic organizations, and formal financial institutions. Today, microfinance in India is delivered through a diverse set of intermediaries, including NGO-MFIs, cooperative societies, Section 8 companies, Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs), Small Finance Banks (SFBs), and both public and private sector banks, all functioning under distinct legal and regulatory frameworks (ICAI). However, the absence of a unified legal framework has historically led to jurisdictional ambiguity. While MFIs fall under the Union List of the Indian Constitution and are regulated primarily by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), some state governments classify them as moneylenders under the State List, leading to regulatory fragmentation (Manisha Raj, 2011). To address these inconsistencies, the RBI has taken progressive steps — notably the recognition of Self-Regulatory Organizations (MFIN and Sa-Dhan) in 2014 and the introduction of a unified regulatory framework for all regulated entities engaged in microfinance in 2022 (SIDBI, 2013; RBI, 2022).

Recent data reflects the sector’s sustained momentum. As of March 2024, India’s gross microfinance loan portfolio stood at ₹4.33 lakh crore, serving over 7.8 crore borrowers, with NBFC-MFIs continuing to hold the largest share (MFIN, 2024). Notably, outreach in Aspirational Districts saw a 23% year-on-year increase, underscoring the sector’s role in inclusive development (SIDBI, 2024). Moreover, technology-enabled platforms - including digital KYC, AI-driven credit scoring, and mobile lending apps - are transforming the way financial services are delivered, improving operational efficiency and expanding access in underserved regions. The microfinance sector is projected to grow at a CAGR of 12.58% from 2024 to 2034, driven by a favorable policy environment and increasing digitization (EvolveBI, 2024).

These developments are particularly significant for rural entrepreneurship, where access to timely and affordable credit remains a cornerstone for initiating and sustaining micro-enterprises. Thus, while institutional innovation and regulatory coherence have enhanced sectoral governance, a well-aligned ecosystem comprising supportive policy, borrower awareness, and consumer protection mechanisms is essential to ensure that microfinance fulfills its broader developmental mandate. 2.1 Key Features and Limitations of the 2022 Unified Framework: 1. A cap on household loan repayments, limiting outflow to a maximum of 50% of the household income.

2. Elimination of collateral and prepayment penalties.

3. Flexibility in repayment frequency to accommodate seasonal income flows.

4. Emphasis on fair lending practices and borrower protection (ENS Economic Bureau, 2021).

These provisions are aimed at protecting borrowers from over-indebtedness, enhancing transparency in lending, and ensuring that credit is provided in a manner that is both sustainable and equitable (Aditya Bhan, 2024). However, regulatory gaps still persist - especially concerning NGO-MFIs that are not subject to comprehensive microfinance specific regulations. These organizations are typically registered under state-level Trust or Society Acts and lack a uniform framework that governs their micro-lending activities. As noted by the World Bank (2006), this creates operational inconsistencies, especially in credit risk assessment, pricing, and recovery practices. Furthermore, due to the absence of a single regulatory statute that covers all MFIs uniformly, many small-scale lenders continue to operate outside the regulatory radar, potentially putting borrowers at risk. This scenario underscores the need for a robust institutional framework that harmonizes central and state-level policies, ensures consumer protection, and promotes transparency in MFI operations. To enable long-term sustainability, it is essential that policymakers establish mechanisms to integrate unregulated entities into the formal financial system without compromising the agility that makes microfinance so effective at the grassroots level.

3. Rising Impact of Microfinance in India: A Decade of Growth and Resilience (2013–2023)

Fig.1 : Microfinance loan disbursements in India surged 7x from ₹25,796 crore in 2013 to ₹1,72,765 crore in 2023, highlighting its growing role in financial inclusion (Source: Sa-Dhan Database).

The graph depicts the trend of loan disbursement by Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) in India over the period from 2013 to 2023, showing a general upward trajectory with occasional fluctuations. Starting from ₹25,796 crore in 2013, the amount steadily increased in the following years, reaching ₹38,558 crore in 2014, ₹56,860 crore in 2015, and peaking at ₹72,345 crore in 2016. However, in 2017 there was a noticeable decline to ₹52,447 crore, possibly due to the aftereffects of demonetization in late 2016 which disrupted cash flows in the informal sector. This dip was followed by a significant recovery in 2018, when disbursements rose to ₹81,737 crore and continued to grow to ₹109,804 crore in 2019. In 2020, there was a slight decline to ₹106,404 crore, which further dipped to ₹81,647 crore in 2021, likely reflecting the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and related lockdowns that constrained microfinance operations and borrower repayment capacities. The sector bounced back in 2022 with ₹113,210 crore disbursed and witnessed a dramatic surge in 2023, reaching ₹172,765 crore, indicating a strong recovery, expansion in outreach, and growing demand for microcredit, particularly in underserved and economically vulnerable communities. Overall, the trend underscores the growing role of MFIs in financial inclusion and the resilience of the sector despite external shocks.

Fig. 2: Microfinance in India saw uneven growth (2016–2023), with J&K growing 1700% and Tripura & Jharkhand over 400%, while saturated states like Karnataka saw stagnation (Source: Sa-Dhan Database). This bar graph illustrates the percentage growth in micro loan disbursement across various Indian states and union territories between the years 2016 and 2023, highlighting regional disparities in microfinance expansion over the period. While most states show a positive growth trajectory, the extent of growth varies significantly. Jammu & Kashmir stands out with an exceptionally high growth rate, exceeding 1700%, indicating a dramatic scale-up in microfinance activity, possibly from a very low base in 2016. Other states with notable growth include Tripura, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, and Jharkhand, each showing growth well above 400%, suggesting expanding outreach of microfinance institutions in northeastern and underserved regions. States like Odisha, Rajasthan, and Goa also saw substantial increases. In contrast, some states like Karnataka and Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu registered negative growth, pointing to either a contraction in disbursement or a market saturation or shift. Relatively mature markets such as Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh witnessed moderate growth, likely due to already established MFI operations. The data reflects both successful financial inclusion efforts in newer geographies and stagnation or regression in certain others, underscoring the need for region-specific strategies to enhance microfinance penetration and ensure balanced financial development across the country.

4. Systemic Challenges and Analytical Reflections on Microfinance and Rural Credit Access Despite substantial progress in expanding microfinance outreach in rural India, persistent challenges continue to constrain the sector’s effectiveness in promoting sustainable rural entrepreneurship. These challenges are systemic, behavioral, and institutional, necessitating coordinated policy reforms and organizational innovation.

A primary barrier remains financial illiteracy among rural populations. A significant proportion of rural borrowers lack adequate understanding of financial products, loan terms, and repayment obligations (Taruna & Yadav, 2016). This knowledge gap limits their capacity to make informed credit decisions and utilize financial services optimally for entrepreneurial ventures. Therefore, targeted borrower education and awareness programs are crucial to empower rural entrepreneurs and reduce vulnerability to misinformation and exploitative lending.

Over-indebtedness is another critical concern. Microloans, intended to be small and manageable, are often associated with higher effective interest rates compared to traditional banking products. Coupled with the practice of multiple borrowing from different microfinance institutions (MFIs), this leads to unsustainable debt burdens that threaten entrepreneurial viability (Rural Development Ministry, 2012; IIT Kanpur, 2011). The 2010 Andhra Pradesh microfinance crisis remains a seminal event illustrating the severe consequences of unchecked lending and recovery practices, including borrower distress and social unrest (Nair, 2012). While the crisis prompted significant regulatory reforms aimed at protecting borrowers, recent sectoral assessments indicate that issues such as over-indebtedness and credit fragmentation persist in various pockets, requiring ongoing oversight and enhanced credit information sharing.

The dependence of MFIs on commercial bank funding, especially from private banks, imposes additional constraints. With approximately 80% of funds sourced from banks that demand stringent repayment terms and impose higher interest costs, MFIs face limited operational flexibility (Saleh & Ahamad, 2023). This financial dependence often pressures MFIs to prioritize short-term recovery over long-term developmental objectives aligned with entrepreneurial growth.

Another salient gap is the limited integration of insurance products within microfinance portfolios. Rural entrepreneurs face frequent income shocks from crop failures, health emergencies, and natural calamities, which can devastate their businesses. However, most microfinance programs continue to emphasize credit and savings while underutilizing insurance as a risk mitigation strategy (Nasir, 2013). Expanding insurance coverage is essential to build resilience and safeguard rural entrepreneurial ventures.

Furthermore, technology adoption among smaller MFIs remains uneven, hindering efficient loan processing, risk management, and borrower monitoring. In the digital era, enhancing technological infrastructure can improve transparency, reduce operational costs, and facilitate scalable delivery of credit services, thereby broadening access for rural entrepreneurs.

Lastly, many microfinance schemes still lack gender-responsive design. Since women constitute the majority of microfinance clients in rural India, credit products and capacity-building programs must address gender-specific constraints such as limited mobility, household responsibilities, and restricted asset ownership. Tailoring services to these realities is vital to unlock the full entrepreneurial potential of women borrowers.

In summary, achieving meaningful and sustainable access to microfinance and rural credit for entrepreneurship demands a holistic approach. This includes enhancing financial literacy, promoting responsible lending, diversifying funding sources, integrating insurance solutions, leveraging digital technologies, and adopting gender-sensitive frameworks. Only through addressing these interconnected challenges can the microfinance sector continue to foster inclusive rural entrepreneurship and socio-economic development in 2025 and beyond. 5. Strategic Policy Framework and Best Practices for Advancing Rural Microfinance

To harness the full potential of microfinance as an instrument of inclusive development and rural entrepreneurship in India, a comprehensive, multidimensional policy framework is imperative. Despite notable progress under the Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) harmonized regulatory norms, the legal and institutional environment for microfinance institutions (MFIs) remains fragmented and uneven. As suggested by Dr. Sanjeeb Kumar Dey (2015), the enactment of a comprehensive national microfinance law would consolidate existing frameworks, bring NGO-MFIs under formal regulatory oversight, and reduce jurisdictional ambiguities between central and state governments. Such a unified legal infrastructure would institutionalize borrower protection, enhance transparency, and establish uniform operational standards across all MFIs.

Financial literacy remains a critical area of intervention, especially given the low levels of awareness among rural borrowers regarding credit terms, savings instruments, and digital platforms. Budampati and Reddy (2024), as well as Rizvi (2025), argue for embedding financial literacy modules into the routine operations of MFIs, with active support from institutions like NABARD and State Rural Livelihood Missions. These modules should not only address traditional financial education but also emphasize digital onboarding, grievance redressal, and customer rights in vernacular languages.

Moreover, MFIs must be repositioned not merely as credit providers, but as development enablers. Dr. Sushama Sharma (2018) recommends the adoption of a tiered lending model wherein first-time borrowers receive small, group-based loans, while repeat borrowers with sound credit histories are graduated to larger, individual loans with flexible terms. This approach not only incentivizes responsible repayment behaviour but also supports the scalability of rural enterprises. In addition to credit, the financial service portfolio of MFIs should include micro-insurance, pension products, remittance services, and emergency loans to meet the life-cycle financial needs of rural households (Nasir, 2013). Targeted public subsidies—such as interest subvention and credit guarantees—should be reserved for ultra-poor households and first-generation entrepreneurs, and their disbursal must be performance-linked to avoid market distortion (Robinson, 2001).

Another critical dimension is capacity building, which must accompany financial inclusion to ensure sustainable livelihood generation. Harvard International Review (2025) highlights the exemplary models of Kudumbashree and SEWA, where microfinance has been effectively integrated with entrepreneurship development, market linkages, and mentorship—especially empowering women-led enterprises. Additionally, institutional capacity-building programs for small and mid-sized MFIs are necessary to improve governance, risk management, and compliance with ethical lending practices.

Technological integration is equally vital to enhance outreach, reduce operational costs, and strengthen monitoring systems. Mobile applications, biometric authentication, and alternative credit scoring systems can facilitate real-time loan tracking, client onboarding, and portfolio risk analysis. However, as noted by Chakraborty et al. (2018), digital transformation must be complemented by robust data protection frameworks to ensure borrower privacy and cybersecurity, especially in underserved areas. Social performance ratings, alongside financial indicators, should be adopted to assess the true developmental impact of microfinance. Metrics such as income enhancement, women’s empowerment, outreach to marginalized communities, and enterprise sustainability should guide regulatory oversight and MFI accountability.

India must also draw lessons from international experiences to strengthen its policy orientation. The European Code of Good Conduct for Microcredit Providers, as endorsed by the European Commission (2022), provides a valuable template for ethical lending, client protection, and institutional governance. Aligning with such global standards can enhance India's credibility and bring domestic practices in line with international benchmarks. Furthermore, convergence between government schemes - such as DAY-NRLM, MUDRA Yojana, and the SHG–Bank Linkage Programme - and private CSR initiatives can optimize resources and prevent duplication. Public–private partnerships can accelerate financial inclusion through shared infrastructure and co-created delivery models.

Finally, the integration of microfinance with climate resilience and environmental sustainability goals is an emerging priority. MFIs should be encouraged to design green credit products that promote renewable energy adoption, organic farming, and climate-adaptive enterprises in rural areas.

In conclusion, these policy recommendations form a strategic framework for transforming the microfinance ecosystem in India. The aim should not be to merely expand the volume of credit, but to lend more intelligently, with empathy, accountability, and developmental foresight. As we look toward a more inclusive and resilient rural economy, microfinance must evolve as a holistic enabler of social and economic empowerment. 6. Conclusion India’s aspiration to become a $5 trillion economy and a global leader in inclusive development hinges significantly on its ability to address rural poverty, underemployment, and financial exclusion. With over 260 million people still living below the poverty line and a significant portion of the workforce engaged in the informal sector, financial inclusion is not merely a policy goal - it is a foundational prerequisite for sustainable development (Devaraja T.S., 2011).

Microfinance has emerged as a vital instrument in this pursuit. It offers more than access to credit; it enables rural individuals - particularly women—to transition from subsistence livelihoods to income-generating activities, fostering self-reliance and resilience. Through group-based lending models, micro-savings, and social capital, microfinance institutions (MFIs) have facilitated upward mobility in rural India. The ripple effects of these interventions - improved nutrition, higher school attendance, better health outcomes, and enhanced household stability - underscore microfinance’s role in promoting multidimensional well being (Jagriti & Kumar, 2023).

However, the sector’s journey has not been without turbulence. While it has democratized credit and reached previously unbanked populations, episodes such as the 2010 Andhra Pradesh crisis exposed structural deficiencies - ranging from coercive recovery practices and over-indebtedness to inadequate regulatory oversight (Nair, 2012). These challenges highlight the need for a more transparent, ethical, and professionally governed microfinance ecosystem.

The path forward requires microfinance to evolve from a narrow credit-centric model to a comprehensive rural development platform. This entails integrating microfinance with skill development programs, social protection schemes, digital financial services, and value-chain linkages. By addressing multiple dimensions of rural vulnerability—including health insecurity, market access barriers, and gender-based constraints - microfinance can play a transformative role in building inclusive and shock-resilient communities (Harvard International Review, 2025).

In this transformation, the role of the state is pivotal. A supportive regulatory environment, digital infrastructure investment, and synergy with government initiatives like NRLM and PM SVANidhi can significantly enhance the impact of microfinance. Furthermore, institutions must prioritize financial literacy, client protection, responsible lending, and rigorous impact evaluation. Performance-based assessment frameworks and tech-enabled service delivery can ensure that outreach does not compromise sustainability or ethics (Vision of Microfinance in India, 2019).

In conclusion, while microfinance is not a panacea for all rural development challenges, it remains an indispensable tool in India’s inclusive growth strategy. When embedded within a robust ecosystem of public support, ethical governance, and borrower-centric innovation, microfinance can catalyze an entrepreneurially vibrant, socially empowered, and economically resilient rural India. To truly realize the promise of inclusive development, India must ensure that no aspiring entrepreneur - however small - is left behind. 7. References: 1. Budampati, R. & Reddy, P., 2024. Access to Microfinance and Rural Credit for Entrepreneurship. Economic & Political Weekly, 59(1), pp.34-50.

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